A Walk Through Boston’s Chinatown: Modernity Photo Essay

It’s impossible to discuss modern Chinese society without considering the influence of life before the Chinese Cultural Revolution; the pre-modern and modern Chinese histories remain distinct but have become almost inextricable. How come?

Mao Zedong, the first chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and a founding father of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), had a vision to create a industrialized, modernized China, and he achieved this by shaking off what he viewed as the shackles of “old China” — “old” ideas,” “old culture,” “old customs,” and “old habits” — collectively known as the Four Olds. In truth, Mao’s crusade against the Four Olds aimed to erase the remnants of Chinese traditionalism in favor of his conception of Chinese modernism: one that embraced an ostensibly progressive identity defined by communist values.

But wander through Boston’s Chinatown on a Sunday afternoon and look closely. You might uncover a different narrative — there has been, in fact, a reunion with the very customs that were purged of in the name of modernity and progress. What I’ve found is precisely the opposite of Mao’s vision. The residents of Chinatown embrace the modern principles and society introduced by Mao’s modern China, surely, but they thoughtfully engage with the remnants of pre-modern China. They preserve the worthwhile aspects of their traditional society — such as religion and leisure — while also redefining certain modern principles — including what it means to be “Chinese.”

This photograph captures the northern face of the Chinatown Gate in Boston’s Chinatown adorned with two flags: the American flag and the Republic of China (ROC) flag. The gate features traditional Chinese architecture and is inscribed, “A world shared by all.” The Chinatown Gate is my first impression of Chinatown — and even of China herself. From the language and tea to the newspapers and even the cigarettes, everything seems authentically Chinese, at least to an outsider. However, this is not completely accurate. Looking closely, it’s evident to see Chinatown’s pushback against the late-modern expectations of nationalism. From my observations, the flags on the Chinatown Gate illustrate a two-fold pushback against this monolithic expectation of nationality and nationalism.

Two Nations Among One People

Nationalism arose in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when people’s identities shifted from familial ties to their nations, which was typically outlined by ethnicity. Today, the concept of a two-nation China challenges the modernist expressions of nationalism by presenting a scenario in which a single ethnicity and culture are divided and represented by (competing) legitimate governments, thereby defying the late-modern nationalist ideal that typically defines a nationality by a single ethnicity and culture under a some unified political authority. The PRC’s “One China” vision advocates for a unified national identity under Beijing, rejecting separatist or alternate national identities such as those represented by the ROC. Thus, by displaying the ROC flag, Chinatown’s residents openly defy the widely-held understandings of nationalism, aligning themselves more so with a perspective that has rejected this principle.

One People Among Two Nations

Moreover, the juxtaposition of the American flag beside the ROC flag calls for a discussion of pluralistic nationalism — it even defies the expectations of nationalism, which are often tied to a single ethnicity and culture. It shows that the residents of Chinatown embrace a dual identity that acknowledges Chinese and/or Taiwanese ancestry alongside their American environment, lifestyles, and perspectives. This pluralistic-nationality approach rejects the late-modern principle that nationality must be defined singularly by ethnicity or culture. It’s also important to acknowledge that the Chinatown Gate was itself a gift to the residents of Boston’s Chinatown from the Government of Taipei. This realization reveals that the Chinatown Gate was designed for Chinatown’s residents (who are mainly first and second-generation American immigrants) as a reminder of their heritage and to intentionally and outwardly foster this dual-identity — and not merely to “repurchase” the loyalty of these immigrants.

In a conversation with a Chinatown resident, I learned that the combined display of the flags resonated among some members of the community. Some members express a profound connection to their plural nationalities — they acknowledge their ancestral Chinese and/or Taiwanese heritages and also fully embrace their Americanness. He added, “This may be Chinatown, but we are still in the United States.” To me, this statement summarizes the nuanced identities in this community, emphasizing a pluralistic and ethnically inclusive approach to nationality that rejects constraints of late-modern conventions.

This photograph makes the nameless mural seem much smaller than it really is. In truth, it spans about 20 feet across and about 10 feet high. It was installed by the South Cove Community Health Center Tobacco Control to discourage tobacco usage among community members. Throughout the entire mural, subjects are swallowed by a sea of smoke, and faceless figures are depicted in despair — or perhaps, dilemma — as they deal with the withdrawals and temptations of tobacco use. Pictured at the center of this mural are three figures that are of tremendous influence to Chinese religion: Daode Tianzun (Left) Buddha (Center) and Confucius (Right) — respectively symbols of the major Chinese religions: Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. What is their relevance to the Community Health Center’s agenda? It’s open to interpretation.

Secularization, the dissociation of religious and spiritual matters from all public affairs, was of prime importance to Mao Zedong’s modernization initiatives. Mao’s objective was to promote scientific reasoning and rationalism over religious and spiritual beliefs to create a classless society. And religion, after all, was considered “the opiate of the masses” and was used to rationalize the domination of lower classes in feudalistic societies, including the “old China.” Undoubtedly, some of the older members of Boston’s Chinatown community grew up in “old China.” And as the Chinese Cultural Revolution unfolded, they saw the erasure of some religious and spiritual remnants which were important parts of Chinese society. The mural’s illustration of Daoist, Buddhist, and Confucianist religious symbols confronts the secularization forced by the Cultural Revolution upon Chinese people and society in the name of modernity. At best, the act of placing such spiritual figures in a community mural might be attributed to a deliberate desecularization initiated by a public authority. But even at the very least, it represents the toleration of religious and spiritual symbols (for the sake of culture and history) among the Chinatown community. Regardless, it is a reminder of the secularized policies once imposed in China and also revives and honors the pre-modern spiritual traditions within the Chinatown community. But indisputably, the mural represents the Chinatown community’s willingness to resist secularization in some contexts, thus acknowledging the enduring influences of religion and spirituality in Chinese history and even in contemporary society.

My last photograph shows more than a dozen men intently watching a game of Chinese chess, or Xiangqi. Some of the men are hidden behind each other. Most of the men appear to be between their mid-50s or early-60s and they appear to be engrossed in the game. And unlike the throngs of men and women assembled around other tables in Mary Soo Hoo Park, these men are silent — there is no laughter, no taunting. When I returned to the table approximately 25 minutes after capturing this photo, many of the men were still there, still quietly engrossed in the Xianqi match, still drinking tea and smoking. I must admit, their enthusiasm was contagious — I found myself becoming interested in the game. It’s possible that many of these men grew up in a China that had just experienced the Cultural Revolution. In the first eight years of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, until Mao Zedong’s death in 1976, chess was regarded as a leisure activity for the bourgeoisie. Thus it was banned to align with the communist objective of eliminating class conflict.

In fact, leisure as a whole was heavily restricted during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Mao wanted to modernize China so as to make all aspects of life contribute to the revolutionary cause. And unfortunately, leisure activities were seen as discouraging work and therefore counterproductive to industrialization. In this way, Mao’s restrictions on leisure sought to mold the ideal Chinese communist citizen but also (ironically) echoed the capitalistic ethos for continuous work and productivity. This comparison highlights a paradox within the Marxist agenda, merging communist ideals with a work-centric philosophy found in industrializing and already industrialized nations.

Thus, the men’s interest in Xiangqi quietly resists the pro-industrial and productivity-focused norms of the Cultural Revolution, which took place in their youth. The norms they are resisting are anti-Maoist and anti-communist, surely. But, by the same token, they are also anti-capitalist. The productivity-focused Maoist principles of which they are in defiance are the same productivity-focused principles manifested by capitalist and industrialized nations of the late-modern era.

Works Cited

Modeling Monarchy: Kingship Is Earned, Not Inherited

What qualifies one to be a king? Is it a noble vision? Fair execution of justice? As Shakespeare’s The Tempest presents kingship, it is having the most powerful slaves and betraying the competition. The dilemma of the source of sovereignty is faced in The Tempest after a shipwreck strands nobility and commoners on an island. On the one hand, Shakespeare presents inherited kingship by noble birth as a more dignified alternative to rule by commoners. On the other hand, Continue reading

Latin Explosion: The Rise of Latin American Artists and Music in the United States

When planning our first road trip from Miami, Florida to Aeshville, North Carolina, it took me a while to realize that leaving the comfort of my hometown would involve more than just new scenery. Sure, the glass buildings and towering skyscrapers gradually became acres of endless grass with herds of farm animals. The flashing lights changed to rustic structures, little by little. But what really struck me was how the radio stations slowly changed from our reassuring Spanish music to strictly English only – the lack of cumbias, of strong beats with a bass that thrummed in my veins, were such a stark contrast against the poppy tunes that left a bitter impression on me. These were subtle yet significant changes that allowed me to realize the lack of Latin American culture, specifically in regards to music, beyond the culturally rich city I grew up in.

On the same trip a few years later, I feared feeling the same distressed anguish I had once felt before. As the typical Hispanic, Miami radio stations scurried into static, I listened as my mom slowly pressed the buttons in search of a new station. I dreadfully waited for someone like Taylor Swift to start playing, however a familiar and comforting sound came through; Los Caminos de La Vida began playing, a song that holds deep childhood memories of my family and I doing our spring cleaning on sunny, Sunday mornings. This became a moment of bliss as a sigh of relief took over my body like a warm embrace once I happily realized the rising influence of Latin Americans in the United States.

Over the past decade, there has been an increase in the number of Latin Americans from several countries who have been migrating to America. Although Latin Americans have been migrating for over a century, there was a large surge seen beginning in the 1980s; According to the Migration Policy Institute, “The Hispanic population in

1990 was slightly less than the entire U.S. population in 1850.”1 These migrants brought their culture with them, sharing it with others as they assimilated in America.2 Everything from cuisine, tradition, and infectious rhythms in new genres of music infused a bridge in the gap between the US and Latin America. Music, specifically, provides a form of expression and connection to the deep roots of their heritage.

With one of the main components of culture being music, Latin artists have slowly been climbing their way through the ranks. Beginning in the 1960s, a distinct period of vibrant salsa made its mark in America, holding a firm peak for over 20 years: this was known as the Salsa Golden Age.3 New York City became the main hub and epicenter of salsa due to the high amount of immigration from Caribbean countries such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic to the United States.4 The fusion of cultures brought a unique flourishing of salsa, with infectious rhythms combining elements of jazz and funk. Artists such as Celia Cruz popularized the genre and allowed it to grow tremendously both in New York City and beyond.5 Cruz’s electric performances and appealing personality captivated a worldwide audience, ultimately making her an incredibly influential figure in the Latin American community. She would go on to achieve several successes such as earning twenty-three gold albums and also having been honored with three Grammy Awards and four Latin Grammy Awards, the most for many female artists at the time.

Although one might argue that salsa’s peak ended decades ago, its impact on the musical world should not be underestimated. I didn’t grow up listening to salsa, but when Hispanic Heritage month rolled around, all the elementary classes would fight on who could dance to Celia Cruz. Our dreams consisted of saying her famous phrase “Azúcarrrrr” in front of our parents. At the time this was merely a competition, a way to take the spotlight, but now I see beyond that: it was a representation of the connection between our culture and heritage. There is a certain pride that comes with knowing the music that your parents grew up with; It demonstrates that despite having grown up in the United States I can still connect to their cultural background through music.

With time, genres of music grew in popularity, but also in variety. After a long day, we drove through the vibrant streets of Miami, blasting “Lamento Boliviano” by Los Enanitos Verdes with the windows rolled down and my parents, brother, and I knew every single lyric. Beyond our differences, my family and I always connected through music, but specifically Latin Rock. Shortly after the era of salsa, came the era of Latin Rock: a combination of American rock and roll with salsa and cumbia beats.6 It quickly gained momentum as it brought a fresh perspective on a refurbished genre—especially in countries such as Argentina and Mexico. Artists and bands such as Carlos Santana, Soda Stereo, and Los Abuelos de la Nada evolved the movement and became prominent in laying the groundwork for future Latin rock artists.7 In 2020, Netflix released a show on the success and movement of Latin Rock called “Break it All: The History of Rock in Latin America.” It highlighted the hurdles that people in South America faced during the 1960s while living in less developed countries with economic and political hardships. There was a focus on the intersectionality between their hardships and music, which represented the up-and-coming nature of these artists and how music helped them persevere.8 As I watched this show of a series of deep conversations, I realized the strong connection and love I have for Latin Rock. Having a parent who migrated from Argentina, and having grown up listening to this genre among others, I understand the depth and significance music holds for everyone. I will always remember my mom constantly saying statements along the lines of “Wow, como yo vacilé con esta musica”, as she reminisced about her days of youth and the deep memories a song can hold. Although this is not the music of my youth, I hold a deep connection to it as it brings memories of both of my parents and the sacrifices they both made so I can be where I am today.

The 21st century has landed on what feels like the peak of Urban Latin music, also known as reggaeton. Originating primarily from Puerto Rico, reggaeton is a result of blended beats from the Caribbean such as Jamaican reggae. This was a distinctive and special fusion that resonated with hundreds of people throughout America and created primary hubs in Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. Reggaeton began growing its popularity through what is called an underground movement, essentially musicians playing their music in underground clubs and radio stations. One of the 21st century’s most famous reggaetoneros is Bad Bunny, who began his journey in the musical atmosphere in Puerto Rico. As a feature in the song “Soy Peor ”, Bad Bunny made his breakthrough, which soon allowed him to top the charts with single and album releases. His third solo album, El Último Tour del Mundo, would become the “…first all-Spanish album to debut at No.1 on the Billboard 200.”9 Bad Bunny is an active representation of the success of Latin American artists in the United States. During his current tour, he was able to reach predominantly white cities such as Salt Lake City and Nashville with almost sold-out stadiums. A few decades ago, this would have been thought to be impossible. The beats and flowy words of his music have attracted a global audience, beyond just Spanish-speakers.

Other artists have seen similar success, such as Daddy Yankee, who is known as the father of reggaeton due to his groundbreaking hits and widespread fame he has received. In 2004, Daddy Yankee released Gasolina, known as one of reggaeton’s greatest accomplishments, if not the best.13 Its catchy beats and memorable lyrics quickly caught the ears of the people, ultimately breaking the charts and debuting number one on “Billboard’s Top Latin Albums chart—being the first-ever reggaeton album to hit that spot”, and it would even stay up there for over 20 weeks.10 In 2017, Yankee would have a similar success, which some might even consider an upgrade, with the song “Despacito” in collaboration with Luis Fonsi, another popular Latin American artist. Additionally, the music video quickly became the most watched YouTube video of all time, and today it sits at number two. A few months later, the song would gain even more traction and success through a remix including Justin Bieber.11 The fusion of English and Spanish speaking artists was extremely appealing to a diverse global audience, setting the example and paving the way for future collaborations between people of different linguistic backgrounds.

Musical crossovers have played a large role in the success and rise of Latin American artists. We have seen many others use this innovative tactic to resonate with audiences all over the world. A notable example of a collaboration that thrived significantly is Spanish-speaking artist Rosalia and Canadian singer The Weeknd, together releasing “La Fama”. The fusion of traditional flamenco rhythms, with Rosalia’s soft-spoken words, and The Weeknd’s natural accent and powerful vocals resulted in a perfect blend. The switching between languages brings a sense of uniqueness and richness to the song, attracting the audience not only to the languages but to the connection between the musicians’ voices. I distinctly remember first listening to this song because I was shocked, not only by the fact that these artists collaborated, but how good they sounded together. Another stellar example would be Bad Bunny and Canadian artist Drake, who have collaborated twice, achieving huge success by making hit songs on both occasions. The blending of Drake’s typical, harsh rap style, with the catchy beats by Bad Bunny created an infectious track that has been listened to by millions. Bilingual exchange in songs shows that music has no language – even when not being able to understand the words or meaning, the rhythm and beat of the song can bring out the best in one. Through these examples, it is clearly seen that musical crossovers continue to be a trend in Latin American artists’ rising success in America.

Other artists show immense talents by consistently switching between Spanish and English, while correctly allowing for a flow between the distinct languages. In other words, the artist is essentially singing in Spanglish. While Spanglish sometimes has negative connotations, this is not always the case, especially in music. A prime example would be Kali Uchis, an up and coming singer who has absolutely broken the charts with her recent Spanglish album Orquídeas.12 Personally, as someone who constantly navigates between Spanish and English, artists who have the ability and skill to successfully perform with both languages bring a sense of comfort and relatability to me. I had the unforgettable opportunity to see Kali Uchis perform in person, and it was undeniably a breathtaking experience. When watching her connect with the audience through music, whether they speak Spanish, English, or both, one can definitely say it’s a shared emotion of inclusivity.

Another artist with whom one might have a similar audience experience is Pitbull. At the start of his career, Pitbull (also known as Mr.World-Wide, Mr. 305), who was well-aware of his bilingual talents, knew the potential of Spanglish. He created and released “We are one (Ole Ola)” for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, featuring collaborations with Jennifer Lopez and Claudia Leitte, allowing for a diverse platform.13 The captivating beats and uplifting message among the lyrics made this song a global hit. This song attests to not only the fact that Spanglish attracts a diverse audience, but also that the universal language of music unites people.

The FIFA World Cup is a perfect example of an event that globally attracts and brings attention to a variety of Latin American Artists and their music. The World Cup occurs every four years, each round gaining more and more views. Just this past year, over five billion people engaged and millions traveled to Qatar to physically attend matches.14 For each tournament, a song or theme song is created and made the official track of that year. This is a chance for Latin American artists to showcase their talents and highlight diverse genres, as the World Cup is not only a celebration of soccer but also the cultures of every country which participates.

These songs don’t only signify growth, but memory. I have so many memories of hearing the theme song playing knowing that a jaw dropping match was about to begin and my life for the next two hours would be on hold. Every four years, I am in a new era of my life but every time the World Cup rolls around, I am back to being the five year-old girl who sat beside her dad on the couch while he yelled in excitement or frustration. I remember especially the 2022 World Cup where I would proudly wear my Argentinian jersey to school every time the Argentina team had a match, and happily watched the games at school alongside friends or at home with my family. Songs like “Pá la Selección ”, made in support of the Argentinian national team, highlights the richness and distinction of Latin music genres – it resonated with not only many Argentinians but also globally.

As the 2026 World Cup slowly approaches, I can foresee an increase in Americans engaging in Latin culture and music. Anticipation is growing as plans are already being set in stone with the locations and stadiums already announced, and tickets waiting to be bought. This major event unites people of all ages across continents, breaking barriers. With the stage being set in North America, we are prepared to welcome and experience the unique, rich Latin American cultures and traditions.

Another event that has successfully captivated large audiences and spotlighted artists is the Super Bowl halftime show. In 2019, the American Football franchise iconically announced that the 2020 performers would be two pop Latin singers, Shakira and Jennifer Lopez. A powerhouse duo brought the stage to flames with their upbeat and catchy songs, leaving everyone in awe. With the Super Bowl being an event primarily viewed by white people, the announcement that two Latina females would be taking the spotlight came as a shock to all audiences. I vividly remember being more excited to watch the halftime show than the actual football, which seems to be a relatable experience among peers. I sat in awe fighting back tears as I watched my heritage be appreciated by the whole of the United States. I yelled with excitement as Bad Bunny and J Balvin walked on stage and collaborated with Shakira and Jennifer Lopez , essentially making the 2020 halftime show performed by four people of Latin American descent. It was a day of memory, passion, growth, and pride for all people of Latin America. The show was extremely successful, surpassing over 200 million views and overall providing a fresh set of genres and culture to an American sport/event.15

But what would events like these be without coverage in the media? The digital revolution has contributed to the rise of Latin American artists and the popularity of their music. The growth of media platforms has allowed artists to connect with audiences from all over the world. With intelligent marketing and strategic tactics, digital platforms can engage fans on a scale never seen before. Social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok have served as a direct line of communication and a personal connection among artists and their fandoms. Things such as concert snippets, behind-the-scenes clips, and interactive experiences all play a role in the growth of artists. This also works in the reverse direction , where fans constantly share their love and passion for their favorite artists through media. Sharing their concert experience, or excitement for an upcoming album attracts people from different music sectors and ultimately helps the artist. Latin American artists have adjusted very well to this revolution and have used it to their advantage. Beyond social media, music applications such as YouTube, Spotify, and Apple Music allow for non-stop listening of all music, music videos, and even countdowns as to when music will be released. Through the use of all platforms, Latin American artists are reaching and rising to higher levels of success and reaching their audiences like never before.

I reflect on the times where crossing city lines meant a farewell to the cumbias and infectious rhythms blasting on the radio. Constantly switching the radio stations in hopes of stumbling upon something familiar, something that transported us to the emotional memories that songs hold. What once felt remotely distant, would gradually become infused into America’s cultural landscape. Through perseverance, passion, and talent, Latin American artists have successfully risen in popularity and are now a huge part of mainstream music in the United States; Reaching the hearts of thousands nationwide through genuine and profound lyrics, addictive beats, and sincere personalities. Through admirable successes and commendable growth, Latin American artists have proven to have crossed the cultural divide of America, ultimately demonstrating that music has no language and no boundaries.

Bibliography

Abad-Santos, Alex. “How ‘Despacito’ Became the Biggest Song of 2017.” Vox, August 18, 2017. https://www.vox.com/culture/2017/8/18/16112710/despacito-biggest-song-of-2017-bieber-fonsi-daddy-yankee.

Acevedo, Beatriz. “Break It All: A History of Latin America through Rock Music,” January 24, 2021. https://drbeatrizacevedo.com/2021/01/24/break-it-all-a-history-of-latin-america-through-rock-music/.

Jeanne Batalova, “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute (MPI), March 13, 2024, migrationpolicy.org.

Becker, Howard S. “The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States by John Storm Roberts.” Popular Music Vol.1, p.215-216.

Cantor-Navas, Judy. “Pitbull’s FIFA World Cup Song a Collab with Jennifer Lopez, Claudia Leitte.” Billboard, January 23, 2014. https://www.billboard.com/music/latin/pitbulls-fifa-world-cup-song-a-collab-with-jennifer-lopez-5877900/.

FIFA. “FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022TM in Numbers.” FIFA Publications, 2022. https://publications.fifa.com/en/annual-report-2022/tournaments-and-events/fifa-world-cup-quatar-2022/fifa-world-cup-qatar-2022-in-numbers/.

Gómez, Shirley. “Shakira and Jenifer Lopez’s Halftime Show Tops among the Most Viewed Super Bowl Moments of All Time.” HOLA! January 31, 2023. https://www.hola.com/us/entertainment/20230131342164/shakira-and-jlos-super-bowl-halftime-show-is-the-most-viewed/.

Head, Howard. “What Is Latin Rock?” HBH, August 24, 2023. https://www.howardbasshead.com/what-is-latin-rock/.

McEvoy, Colin. “Bad Bunny – Songs, Career & Facts.” Biography, April 4, 2022. https://www.biography.com/musicians/bad-bunny.

Rivera, Ángel G. Quintero. “Migration, Ethnicity, and Interactions between the United States and Hispanic Caribbean Popular Culture.” Latin American Perspectives 34, no. 1 (January 2007): 83–93.

Schroeder, Pollyanna. “The Growth of Latin American Pop Music in the United States,” College Music Symposium 18, no. 2 (1978): 124–29.

Smithsonian. “Celia Cruz.” Accessed April 18, 2024. https://www.si.edu/spotlight/latin-music-legends-stamps/celia-cruz.

Yawata, Isabella. “Kali Uchis Blossoms with Brilliant New Album, Orquídeas.” The Highlander, February 2, 2024. https://thehighlandernews.com/33166/arts-ent/kali-uchis-blossoms-with-brilliant-new-album-orquideas.

Young, Takeshi. “History of Salsa Dance: Origins of Salsa.” Salsa Vida, June 26, 2023. https://www.salsavida.com/articles/history-of-salsa-dance/.

Zelazko, Alicja. “Reggaeton.” Britannica, August 22, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/art/reggaeton.

Notes

1. Jeanne Batalova. “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute (MPI), March 13, 2024, migrationpolicy.org.

2. Angel G. Quintero Rivera. “Migration, Ethnicity, and Interactions between the United States and Hispanic Caribbean Popular Culture.” Latin American perspectives 34, no. 1 (2007): 83–93.

3. Pollyanna T. Schroeder. “The Growth of Latin American Pop Music in the United States.” College Music Symposium 18, no. 2 (1978): 124–129.

4. Howard S. Becker, “The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States.” Popular Music 1 (1981): 215–216.

5. Smithsonian, “Celia Cruz.” www.si.edu/spotlight/latin-music-legends-stamps/celia-cruz. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024.

6. Howard Head. “What Is Latin Rock?” HBH, 24 Aug. 2023, www.howardbasshead.com/what-is-latin-rock. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024.

7. Ibid.

8. Beatriz Acevedo. “Break It All: A History of Latin America through Rock Music,” 24 Jan. 2021, drbeatrizacevedo.com/2021/01/24/break-it-all-a-history-of-latin-america-through-rock-music/. Accessed 15 Apr. 2024.

9. Colin McEvoy. “Bad Bunny – Songs, Career & Facts.” Biography, April 4, 2022. https://www.biography.com/musicians/bad-bunny.

10. Alicja Zelazko. “Reggaeton.” Britannica, August 22, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/art/reggaeton.

11. Alex Abad-Santos. “How “Despacito” Became the Biggest Song of 2017.” Vox, 18 Aug. 2017, www.vox.com/culture/2017/8/18/16112710/despacito-biggest-song-of-2017-bieber-fonsi-daddy-yankee. Accessed 6 Apr. 2024.

12. Isabella Yawata. “Kali Uchis Blossoms with Brilliant New Album, Orquídeas.” The Highlander, 2 Feb. 2024, thehighlandernews.com/33166/arts-ent/kali-uchis-blossoms-with-brilliant-new-album-orquideas. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024.

13. Judy Cantor-Navas. “Pitbull’s FIFA World Cup Song a Collab with Jennifer Lopez, Claudia Leitte.” Billboard, 23 Jan. 2014, www.billboard.com/music/latin/pitbulls-fifa-world-cup-song-a-collab-with-jennifer-lopez-5877900/. Accessed 16 Apr. 2024.

14. FIFA. “FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022TM in Numbers.” FIFA Publications, 2022: publications.fifa.com/en/annual-report-2022/tournaments-and-events/fifa-world-cup-quatar-2022/fifa-world-cup-qatar-2022-in-numbers/. Accessed 16 Apr. 2024.

15. Shirley Gómez. “Shakira and Jenifer Lopez’s Halftime Show Tops among the Most Viewed Super Bowl Moments of All Time.” HOLA! 31 Jan. 2023.

Echoes of Power: Men’s Fascination with the Roman Empire

How often do you think about the Roman Empire? The average man would answer several times a week, some even as much as three times a day.1 It’s been almost 2,000 years since the Romans’ height of power, yet it still impacts the way modern men think about the world today. At its peak in 230 CE, the Roman Empire conquered land stretching from present-day England to Egypt and the Middle East, and surrounded the entire Mediterranean Sea. While this empire lasted for centuries, its history can be organized into three time periods: The Period of Kings (625 BCE to 510 BCE), Republican Rome (510 BCE to 31 BCE), and Imperial Rome (31 BCE to 476 CE). The Period of Kings began at the economic and military uprisings of the Roman Empire. A transition from ruling kings to an established government made way for Republican Rome. Here, citizens followed an established law code known as the Twelve Tables. After Julius Caesar, the dictator of the empire from 46 to 44 BCE, was assassinated, his heir Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus rose to power. He assumed the name Augustus and became the first Emperor of the Roman Empire, leading to the Imperial Rome era. Imperial Rome saw centuries of prosperity and peace, up until internal and external struggles led to its demise in 476 CE.2 The long holding success of the Roman Empire lies in its unified culture. A male-dominated society built the empire based on their masculine values of power and control, which resulted in a society that constantly searched for war to satisfy the male desire to dominate. As a result, they placed great emphasis on the strength of their military, an organized social structure, and a unique governance that allowed them to establish, conquer, and run a thriving empire. The prominent cultural features and gender roles of the Roman Empire founded modern men’s ideologies of male strength and dominance. The pervasive male pursuit for power and control translates into an infatuation with the Roman Empire and its lasting legacy, which was built on such ideologies.

The Twelve Tables of Roman Law was established in 449 BC by a ruling body of ten men known as Decemvirs.3 It is the oldest Roman law code, drafted for equality between plebeians and patricians after complaints of oppression towards plebeians. This foundational legal document represents a significant step towards codifying and organizing Roman law. The twelve detailed laws defined civil rights and fixed consequences upon breaking the laws, reflecting the Romans’ commitment to establishing a fair and orderly legal system that applied to all citizens, regardless of social status or background. As such, the Twelve Tables functioned as a check on Rome’s openly hierarchical social structure, granting rights and legal recourse to plebeians.

But these partial measures were not sufficient since Rome’s patriarchal society ranked men at the height of its hierarchy. Their status above lesser members of society, especially women, is seen especially in Table V relating to guardianship and succession: “Females shall remain in guardianship even when they have attained their majority…”4 This is to say that although a woman has reached adulthood, referred to as their “majority,” they must remain under the care and control of a male figure. Roman female citizens were not trusted to think for themselves, but rather, their father, uncle, or husband would make their decisions for them. This law code shows the value, or lack thereof, of women in Roman society. They were viewed as less intelligent and less capable than a man, and as a result, placed beneath them on the social pyramid. This is another respect in which Ancient Rome offers an idealized notion to those who long for a return to the traditional gender roles of the 1950s. Roman men served as breadwinners and protectors, taking on large roles in government and in the military, while women were homemakers and caretakers of the children. The difference in roles as far as an exertion of power, especially in meaningful areas like war and politics, gave men a sense of greater importance. This justified their place above women on the social hierarchy because women were viewed as weak and frail, and it was a man’s civic duty to protect them. Furthermore, Table V referring to a male figure as a woman’s “guardian” implied ownership of her. This idea of control over those who lack authority and power relates back to why men idealize the Roman Empire. As men seek power and control in their modern lives, they fantasize about a time when it was handed to them. Male superiority was written in a legal code, and, therefore, could not be disputed. These societal implications determine the superiority of men, satisfying their masculine validity. The Roman Empire was set up to be a patriarchal society, thus reinforcing the power-hungry mentality exhibited by men.

Conquest-happy is another term that epitomizes the social construct of masculinity. The concept behind Roman conquests was analyzed by Polybius, who was the third greatest Greek historian after Herodotus and Thucydides.5 In his lifetime from 200 BCE to 118 BCE, he became most known for his writings on the Punic Wars between the Roman Republic and the Punic Empire that lasted from 264 BCE to 146 BCE, in addition to the Roman conquest, consisting of a series of operations that accumulated land and power for the Roman Empire throughout its time. These works were written in his multi-volume books, “The Histories,” that he finished in 146 BCE.6 Here, notable people, events, and ideas of Roman society were explored in great detail.

In Polybius’s second introduction of “The Histories,” he addresses the subject of military conquests and the idea of success as different from a victorious outcome. He argues that a definitive judgment cannot be made on either side of a conflict, the victors and the defeated, by only considering its outcome. Polybius explains this reasoning by writing, “Neither historical actors nor those who write about them should think that the aim of every undertaking is to win and to subjugate everyone else… in fact all men act with the aim of obtaining the pleasure, honour or profit that will result from their action.”7 Polybius argues that a military victory should not be the determinant of a successful society. Yet, men are so focused on this prowess that they paint success in a black and white light. He addresses the violent intentions of men that are clouded with a desire of dominance and power. These characteristics are heavily valued in Roman society, as it is the drive towards Rome’s expansion. As a result, they also became an internal value of the average Roman man. Polybius specifically refers to soldiers obtaining “pleasure” and “honour” from the violent conquests. This positive rhetoric relating to a violent affair proves that through an exertion of power, men are fulfilled. Inversely, men feel shameful if they are defeated. Gender roles enhanced their sense of value based on their achievements. Gender roles divided specific duties to both men and women, and their ability to perform well at them determined their worth. Therefore, if a man failed at the physical duties he was assigned, he was a disappointment as a soldier and to his greater duty to Roman society. These masculine pressures translate to the modern world. Men are encouraged to show strength and hide any emotion to not be perceived as weak. Men who struggle to suppress their emotions and meet the unrealistic expectations of men in contemporary society seek inspiration and admiration in the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire is the epitome of strength and dominance, and they look up to it as a paragon of how they should act.

This same idea of strength and dominance was found in Rome’s neighboring society, Greece. Pericles’s Funeral Oration was a speech delivered by the Athenian general and statesman Pericles (495-429 BC) and published in the historian Thucydides’s (460-395 BCE) The History of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE).8 Pericles’s Funeral Oration is an example of the Athenian public practice of delivering eulogies to honor their fallen soldiers. He delivered it to Athenian citizens after the first year of fighting the Peloponnesian War against Sparta to promote nationalism and perseverance. Pericles illustrates the warrior culture of Greece, which was in itself a close cousin of the warrior culture of Rome. Greece, being a conquered city-state of the Roman Empire, embodied many of the same masculine ideals.

In Pericles’s Funeral Oration, he outlines the difference between an ideal Athenian man and an ideal Athenian woman. He pays tribute to the Athenian men who served and died in the war and reassures their families that it is the most honorable way to die. The soldiers who fell at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE are described as having “…valor distinguished above that of all others…” The soldiers were recognized to have “valor,” which goes beyond courage or bravery. The intention behind use of this word is to emphasize the respect and honor Roman society placed on their soldiers. Describing this characteristic as one that is “distinguished above that of all others” shows the extent of the true value that Athenians, and in turn, Romans, placed on their soldiers. This created a sense of a sense of necessity for men to serve their country and “prove themselves,” as Pericles describes.9 The ideal Athenian man was both mentally and physically strong, to mirror the strength of their country. When the Romans adopted this ideology, it also founded societal pressures for males that discouraged them from showing any signs of weakness that still exist today.

In contrast to Pericles’s promotion of an ideal Athenian man, he goes on to describe what he calls an “esteemed woman” by stating, “great will be your glory in not falling short of the natural character that belongs to you; and great is hers, who is least talked of among the men, either for good or evil.”10 Pericles first encourages women not to stray from their “natural character,” or purity. He then warns them not to tempt men, and that the less attention they draw to themselves, the more highly regarded they would be. This directly relates to the Roman value of piety shown through their religious position of Vestal Virgins, who were Roman priestesses. Vestal Virgins were highly respected in Roman society starting in the seventh century BCE until they were banned by emperor Theodosius I in 394 CE as part of his efforts to Christianize the Roman Empire.11 These women “functioned to instill a collective identity of what it meant to be a Roman.”12 Vestal Virgins served as a reminder to other women of how an ideal Roman woman should behave. Women who were conservative and abstinent were highly valued in society. This showcases the different expectations of Roman men and women. Men were valued for their behavior on the battlefield, whereas a woman’s value depended on what men thought of her. Because men were given this power and level of control over women, it translated into them having an over-dominant ideology. Modern men translate this Roman way of thinking into what is known today as “toxic masculinity.” Toxic masculinity is a set of stereotypical social guidelines associated with manliness that men showcase in the forms of over-dominance, aggression, and stoicism.13 Men who idealize the Roman Empire justify this toxic behavior because it was socially acceptable in Roman society.

Toxic masculinity is far from a recent phenomenon, but, rather, was present in ancient Roman and Greek myths. Publius Ovidius Naso, referred to as Ovid, was a Roman poet (43 BCE-17 CE) who was especially known for his books Ars amatoria and Metamorphoses. In his poetry, he reflected Roman ideas in his interpretations of classical Greek myths.14 Ovid’s take on the myth of Galatea and Polyphemus follows the beautiful nymph Galatea and her lover Acis. Polyphemus, a Cyclops, becomes infatuated with Galatea, and, despite his unrequited love, relentlessly pursues her. When Polyphemus catches Galatea and Acis together, he is so consumed by jealousy that, in a fit of anger, he crushes Acis to death with a massive rock.15

Polyphemus can be seen as a “toxic male” archetype in today’s society. In Ovid’s writings, Galatea describes Polyphemus’s fit of anger upon seeing her with Acis: “I saw all this; and, after he in vain had uttered such complaints, he stood up like a raging bull whose heifer has been lost…”16 Polyphemus’s rage is described to be “in vain,” as he selfishly cannot accept to see his love interest with another man. He then throws a tantrum, to which he is compared to a raging bull, which shows the extent of his uncontrollable anger when his ego is bruised. This behavior persists in modern society in the form of the typical toxic “nice guy.” The “nice guy” showers his love interest with gifts and kindness, expecting this love to be reciprocated emotionally and sexually. In the case where it is not, he is full of anger from the rejection. Modern men are able to justify this behavior because Rome normalized men acting aggressively and resorting to violence. When Galatea refused Polyphemus, he turned to violence in an attempt to assert his manhood and cope with the rejection. By killing Acis, he removed his competition for Galatea’s love, and selfishly attempted to terrorize her into submission to his emotional and sexual demands.17 When Polyphemus is not given what he wants, he exerts his dominance over what he perceives as a weaker figure in order to inflate his ego.

A modern example of a “toxic male” is the British-American social media figure Andrew Tate. Andrew’s outspoken controversial and misogynistic views have gained world-wide attention. Despite the majority of negative responses, he has managed to gain an overwhelmingly large male following.18 On various podcasts and social media platforms, Andrew has stated, “I think the women belong to the man,” and “You can’t be responsible for… a woman that doesn’t obey you.”19 These beliefs date back to ancient Roman society when women were classified as second-class citizens and the property of men, which is no longer relevant in today’s society. Yet, Andrew is able to influence young males with his ideologies by preying on their insecurities of weakness. He validates their desire for strength by preaching that men are inherently superior to women, giving them a false sense of power in their daily lives. Andrew Tate embodies the Roman Empire’s male ideologies of control and dominance. When modern men don’t meet the social standards for a strong man, they feel threatened. In an attempt to compensate for what they lack, they buy into these delusions of inherit dominance.

Male social standards are a double-edged sword. Dating back to the start of the Roman Empire in 625 BCE, men have been granted power and privilege in society, followed by a number of opportunities that women today still struggle to attain. However, they also create social pressures that negatively impact the mental health of men, making them feel like a failure if they do not live up to them. Seeking unhealthy measures to cope with what they lack in the “ideal Roman male” image, they turn to toxic male figures like Andrew Tate to validate their manliness. Young men are being told that they are dominant by nature, and it is natural for them to act aggressively. As a result, they exert their power in a harmful manner, often in the form of physical and sexual violence against women. The persistence of these outdated and sexist beliefs preached by these public figures pose a threat to feminist progress today.

So, how often do you think of the Roman Empire? Perhaps more than you realize. Its culture and beliefs have echoed throughout the centuries, long after the empire’s fall, and continue to impact modern society. The power dynamic between and expectations of men and women was largely founded by the Roman Empire. As men continue to embody its ideologies of dominance and control, traditional gender role endurance remains constant, for better or for worse.

Notes

1. Betsy Reed, “The Roman Empire: Why Men Just Can’t Stop Thinking About It,” The Guardian, September 19, 2023, link.

2. “The Roman Empire: A Brief History,” Milwaukee Public Museum, Accessed March 29, 2024, link.

3. E.B. Conant, “St. Louis Law Review: The Laws of the Twelve Tables,” HeinOnline Law Website Journal Volume XIII, no. 4 (2017): 231, link.

4. Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, “The Twelve Tables of Roman Law,” Roman Civilization: Selected Readings, Volume I. The Republic and the Augustan Age, 108-116.

5. Errietta Bissa et al., Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History, (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013), 30, Retrieved from books.google.com.

6. Francesca Fontanella, Aelius Aristides between Greece, Rome, and the Gods, (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008), 204, Retrieved from brill.com.

7. Quoted in Francesca Fontanella, “The Encomium on Rome as a Response to Polybius’ Doubts About the Roman Empire,” in Aelius Aristides between Greece, Rome, and the Gods, ed. W.V. Harris and Brooke Holmes, Leiden: Brill, 2008, p 203.

8. Joshua Mark, “Pericles,” World History Encyclopedia, March 12, 2018, link.

9. Thucydides; trans. Henry Dale. “Pericles’s Funeral Oration (429 BCE)” The History of the Peloponnesian War, 429 BCE, 20, 24.

10. Thucydides; trans. Henry Dale, “Pericles’s Funeral Oration (429 BCE).”

11. “Vestal Virgins | Priestesses, Temple, Rome,” Britannica, March 12, 2024, link.

12. Joshua Roberts, “Rome’s Vestal Virgins: Public Spectacle and Society,” Western Washington University CEDAR, February 19, 2012, link.

13. Sarah Vallie, “Toxic Masculinity: How to Recognize and Treat It,” WebMD, November 11, 2022, link.

14. John Kenney, “Ovid | Biography, Metamorphoses, & Facts,” Britannica, April 3, 2024, link.

15. Rhianna Padman, “Polyphemus: Who Was the Cyclops That Was Tricked by Odysseus?” The Collector, December 29, 2023, link.

16. Publius Ovidius Naso; trans. Brookes More, “Galatea & Polyphemus,” Metamorphoses 13, 738-870.

17. Melissa Marturano, “Ovid, Feminist Pedagogy, Toxic Manhood, and the Secondary School Classroom.” The Classical Outlook Volume 95, no. 4 (2020): 147–51, link.

18. Betsy Reed, “I’m Andrew Tate’s Audience and I Know Why He Appeals to Young Men,” The Guardian, January 6, 2024, link.

19. Andrej Barovic, “60 Most Controversial Andrew Tate Quotes,” Dot Esports, March 14, 2024, link.

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